Location of caves with occurrences of studied bear skulls

Demänovská Ice Cave
Located in the Demänovská Valley in the Low Tatras, it is one of the most significant caves in Slovakia. The cave reaches a length of 2,445 m and a depth of 57 m, of which 650 m are open to the public. It is part of the Demänovský Cave System, the largest karst complex in Slovakia, with a total length of over 50 km.

Ice Fill
The cave has long been known for its permanent floor ice. However, due to changes in microclimatic conditions, the last permanent ice melted in 2024. Today, only seasonal ice formations remain, such as ice columns and stalactites, which typically persist until the end of summer.The cave also holds exceptional historical significance – the first written mention dates back to 1299, making it one of the longest documented caves in Europe.

Wielka Śnieżna Cave
The longest and deepest cave in Poland, with a total length of 23,723 m and a vertical range of 824 m, is located in the karst massif of the Czerwone Wierchy (Red Peaks) in the Western Tatras. It is one of the most significant karst systems of the Tatras. The cave entrances are situated at elevations of approximately 1,600–1,700 m a.s.l. The cave is characterized by pronounced vertical development, extensive shafts, and active underground watercourses, which are exceptional features in the Tatra karst environment.

Ice Fill
Even at great depths, ice forms in the cave due to its specific microclimate. During the winter, cold air, snow, and water accumulate and freeze, persisting through the summer, making the cave a natural cryogenic system. Long-term measurements indicate a gradual loss of ice, with an average reduction of approximately 2 m in thickness over the last decade (~20 cm per year), linked to ongoing climatic changes. If this trend continues, the ice may completely disappear by the end of the 21st century.